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The Evolution of Clinical Psychology in India: A Narrative Review of Historical Progress and Emerging Paradigms in Training
*Corresponding author: Ranjita Kumari, Department of Clinical Psychology, The Therapeutic Square Clinic, Airport Road, Surat, Gujarat, India. drranjitakumari@gmail.com
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Kumari R, Uparikar PD, Priyanka. The Evolution of Clinical Psychology in India: A Narrative Review of Historical Progress and Emerging Paradigms in Training. Acad Bull Ment Health. doi: 10.25259/ABMH_57_2025
Abstract
From its inception in British India, the goal of clinical psychology in India has evolved significantly, with training models embracing the scientist-practitioner model and based upon the rigorous science of psychology to date, primarily in the last 75 years. Postgraduate degrees like M.Phil. Clinical psychology has established a formal and substantial foundation of professional competence that takes into account theoretical foundations, practical applications of skills, and supervised clinical activities. However, recent force majeure developments, influenced by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, demonstrated a willingness to restructure, reorganize, and/or compress training pathways, with an aim to needle undergraduate entry points into the clinical psychology sphere. This narrative review outlines the historical evolution of training in clinical psychology in India. It questions the implications of moving on to newer versions that compress and/or reorganize training pathways. Although these activities are indicative of an intention to democratize and/or better access psychological services, they also start to raise the spectre of diminishing academic rigor and clinical preparedness. The review raises some open issues related to the potential unraveling of the foundations, the diversity of program quality, and early graduate readiness for professional roles. This review article, in a plea consistent with national policy frameworks, accrediting foundations, and international educational guidelines, promotes an evidence-based and cautious process of change.
Keywords
Clinical psychology
India
M.Phil. NEP 2020
Paradigm shift
Psychologist licensure
Training models
INTRODUCTION
Clinical psychology in India has grown in stages over several decades, shaped by changing academic, institutional, and sociocultural contexts. Clinical psychology moved from a context of limited formal training and development to grow in tandem with the emergence of professional schools and professional associations. Early clinical psychologists were trained under a scientist-practitioner model, where a program like the M.Phil. Clinical Psychology became the benchmark to develop balanced professionals. Importantly, the scientist-practitioner model reinforced the necessary integration of theoretical knowledge and clinical skills so that graduates had the relevant knowledge and skills to respond properly to the tasks of treatment and diagnosis of mental illness disorders.[1]
However, despite such progress, there are still many obstacles to the practice. Regulatory gaps, inconsistent and inadequate licensure standards, and a public misunderstanding of the role of clinical psychologists have obstructed expansion and access to psychological services. There are also shortages in the availability of resources and mental health professionals that contribute to the ongoing mental health crisis in India. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.[2] and its subsequent decades of reforms in the country have shifted training and stepped up with more entry points in the profession, including undergraduate-level programs. This escalation of engagement for training in clinical psychology and interventions for effective clinical care may be attenuated by concerns for dilution of academic standards and academic credentialing.
This review aims to document the evolution of clinical psychology in India and critically examines the new changes in training models, as well as the new challenges presented to us by the NEP reforms. As the Indian mental health profession evolves, it is imperative to strike a balance between widening access and preserving the integrity and quality of training and clinical practice.
Historical evolution of clinical psychology in India
The formative years (1905–1955)
During the early decades of the 20th century, psychological practice in India focused largely on psychodynamic approaches following the general international trend. Girindrasekhar Bose started practicing psychoanalysis in 1915 in India.[1] He structured education on the psychoanalytic approach, which was started off in 1921 by establishing the Indian Psychoanalytic Association at Calcutta University. The psychology department at Calcutta University ventured into an applied aspect in 1938 with the goal of developing psychological tests as well as providing vocational guidance to students. The Indian Psychoanalytical Institute was also critical in that it introduced structured training in clinical psychology. With the University of Calcutta commencing a certificate course in applied and abnormal psychology in 1945, and Banaras Hindu University starting a one-year course in clinical psychology in 1951, academic institutions started formal education in applied psychology.[3]
Expansion and institutionalization (1955–1975)
The All India Institute of Mental Health started formal training in the field of clinical psychology in 1955. It was a two-year duration postgraduate diploma course in medical psychology, which was highly structured and promised an upskilled training in the field. Later, the same course was named as M.Phil. Clinical psychology.[1,3] The Central Institute of Psychiatry started a Diploma in Medical and Social Psychology in 1962.[1] In 1973, the B.M. Institute in Ahmedabad initiated the third formal clinical psychology training program in the country, further expanding the academic infrastructure for professional education in the field. Later in the year 2000, Ranchi Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Allied Sciences also started a two-year diploma in medical and social psychology.[4] The establishment of two well-structured courses in clinical psychology at national-level institutions paved the way for much-needed rigorous training in the field without compromising the quality. Several university philosophy departments began introducing postgraduate psychology programs, and by 1975, around 51 universities offered courses in the subject. This number expanded to approximately 70 by the mid-1990s (Association of Indian Universities, 1995). The period also marked the beginning of formal training and the emergence of behavior therapy practices.[3]
Training and professionalization
The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was established in 1968, and the Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology was started in 1974.[5] IACP was striving for quality improvement and was keen on seeking recognition for the field.[1] Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) was established in 1986, and it was made a statutory body by passing an act in 1992.6 In order to design, standardize, and ensure the quality in clinical psychology education programs, the RCI was given the necessary statutory authority. It also maintained a central rehabilitation register of all certified clinical psychologists and granted institutions validatory approval (RCI, 1992).[6]
The RCI recognizes three major professional programs in clinical psychology, each addressing various levels of training and professional goals. The Professional Diploma in Clinical Psychology (PDCP) is designed as a 1-year training program aimed at preparing students to work as Clinical Psychologists (Associate). The PDCP is directed at developing students' ability to work in applied (clinical or practice) contexts outside of academia (i.e., hospitals, community clinics, rehabilitation centers) with an integrated focus on developing practice skills, broadly considered to be non-academic service provision. This diploma is considered an entry-level qualification and was developed via RCI to help support the applied mental health workforce.[7]
The M.Phil. in Clinical Psychology is a two-year full-time professional curriculum representing the necessary qualification to be registered as a Clinical Psychologist in India. As per RCI’s 2016 guidelines, it is the minimum requirement for clinical practice and academic roles in the field. The M.Phil. is widely regarded as the standard pathway for those aiming to build a career in psychological assessment, psychotherapy, and teaching at the foundational level.[8] For individuals seeking advanced professional development, the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) offers a more comprehensive and research-integrated path. The PsyD is a doctoral-level program that goes beyond the M.Phil. in depth and scope. The course duration is 4 years. The PsyD program, which was introduced in 2011, serves as a higher qualification for those looking to engage in both advanced clinical practice and scholarly inquiry.[9]
The Mental Healthcare Act of 2017 provided clear guidelines for becoming a clinical psychologist in India. As per this act a “clinical psychologist is defined as a person who has either (i) earned a recognized clinical psychology degree from an institution established by the Rehabilitation Council of India under Section 3 of the Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, or (ii) earned a postgraduate degree in psychology, clinical psychology, or applied psychology and a Master of Philosophy in clinical psychology or medical and social psychology after completing a two-year full-time program that includes supervised clinical training from any university recognized by the University Grants Commission established under the University Grants Commission Act, 1956, approved and recognized by the Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, or such recognized qualifications as may be prescribed.[10]
Expansion of the infrastructure and flow of manpower in the field
As of July 2023, there were 3,372 Clinical Psychologists registered with RCI.[11] By April 2025, there are 70 institutions [Table 1] offering the M.Phil. in clinical psychology course approved by the RCI, (2025). RCI has provided approval for 20 seats each to 20 institutions across India to run the BSc clinical psychology course. Table 2 shows the list of institutions with approval for the BSc clinical psychology course by RCI in 2025.[12]
| North India | |
| 1. | 1.IHBAS, Delhi |
| 2. | National Forensic Science University, New Delhi |
| 3. | PGIMER, RML Hospital, New Delhi |
| 4. | OPJS University, Churu |
| 5. | Madhav University, Sirohi |
| 6. | Amity University, Noida |
| 7. | MJRP College, Jaipur Govt. Medical College, Srinagar |
| 8. | NIEPVD, Dehradun |
| 9. | Santosh Medical College, Ghaziabad |
| 10. | Shyam University, Dausa |
| 11. | Institute of Mental Health & Hospital, Agra |
| 12. | Dayanand Medical College, Ludhiana |
| 13. | Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur |
| 14. | Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida |
| 15. | Amity University, Gurgaon, Haryana |
| 16. | Amity University, Mohali |
| 17. | NIMS University, Jaipur |
| 18. | Amity University, Lucknow |
| 19. | Govt. Medical College & Hospital, Chandigarh |
| 20. | SGT University, Gurgaon |
| 21. | Amity University, Jaipur, Rajasthan |
| 22. | Pacific Medical College, Udaipur |
| 23. | Nai Subah, Varanasi |
| 24. | Om Sterling Global University, Hisar |
| 25. | Mahatma Gandhi Medical College, Jaipur |
| 26. | Amity University, Greater Noida |
| 27. | Gurugram University, Haryana |
| 28. | Apex University, Jaipur |
| 29. | Manav Rachna University, Faridabad |
| 30. | SKD University, Hanumangarh |
| 31. | Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurgaon |
| North-East India | |
| 1. | RIMS, Imphal |
| 2. | LGB Regional Institute of Mental Health, Tezpur |
| 3. | Mizoram University, Aizawl |
| East India | |
| 1. | Amity University, Kolkata |
| 2. | Institute of Psychiatry, Kolkata |
| 3. | RINPAS, Ranchi |
| 4. | CIP Ranchi |
| 5. | Mental Health Institute, Cuttack, Odisha |
| 6. | University of Calcutta, Kolkata |
| 7. | Amity Institute of Clinical Psychology, Patna, Bihar |
| Central India | |
| 1. | S. S. College, Bhopal |
| 2. | Gwalior Mansik Arogyashala, Gwalior |
| 3. | Amity University, Madhya Pradesh |
| 4. | Man College of Special Education, Guna |
| 5. | PG Institute of Behavioural & Medical Sciences, Raipur |
| 6. | Sri Aurobindo Institute of Medical Sciences, Indore |
| 7. | Central India Institute, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh |
| 8. | Amity Institute of Behavioural & Allied Sciences, Raipur |
| West India | |
| 1. | Institute of Behavioural Sciences, GFSU, Gujarat |
| 2. | Rashtriya Raksha University, Gujarat |
| 3. | NIEPID, Navi Mumbai |
| 4. | Amity University, Mumbai |
| 5. | INHS Asvini, Mumbai |
| 6. | Maharashtra Institute of Mental Health, Pune |
| South India | |
| 1. | Vinayaka Mission’s, Puducherry |
| 2. | Thakur Hari Prasad Institute, Hyderabad |
| 3. | Institute of Mental Health, Chennai |
| 4. | Indlas Hospitals, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh |
| 5. | Manipal University, Manipal |
| 6. | Vinayaka Mission’s, Karaikal, Puducherry |
| 7. | NIMHANS, Bangalore |
| 8. | DIMHANS, Dharwad |
| 9. | JSS Medical College, Mysuru |
| 10. | Kateel Ashok Pai Institute, Shivamogga |
| 11. | Sri Ramachandra Institute, Chennai |
| 12. | Amrita School of Medicine, AIMS, Ernakulam, Kerala |
| 13. | NIEPMD, Tamil Nadu |
| 14. | IMHANS, Kozhikode, Kerala |
| 15. | Sweekar Academy, Secunderabad |
| Sr. no. | Institutions |
|---|---|
| 1. | Amity University Patna |
| 2. | Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurgaon |
| 3. | Amity University Raipur |
| 4. | Om Sterling Global University, Department of Special Education, School of Teacher Education, Hisar, Haryana- 20 |
| 5. | Amity University Haryana |
| 6. | Amity Institute of Behavioural & Allied Sciences, Amity University, Madhya Pradesh |
| 7. | Amity Institute of Behavioural And Allied Sciences (AIBHAS) Kolkata |
| 8. | National Institute of Mental Health Rehabilitation, Madhya Pradesh |
| 9. | Amity Institute of Behavioural (Health) & Allied Sciences (AIBHAS), Amity University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh |
| 10. | Vinayaka Mission’s Research Foundation (Deemed University), Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Kirumambakkam, Puducherry |
| 11. | Amity University, Malhore, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh |
| 12. | Amity University (Amity School of Education and Research) Mohali, Punjab |
| 13. | Gautam Buddha University, Gautam Budh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh |
| 14. | Mahatma Gandhi Medical College & Hospital Faculty of Medicine –RIICO Institutional Area, Jaipur, Rajasthan |
| 15. | Amity Institute of Behavioural (Health) & Allied Sciences (AIBHAS), Amity University, Gautam Budh Nagar, Noida |
| 16. | Apex Institute of Special Education, Apex University, Jaipur, Rajasthan |
| 17. | Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to be University) Dept. of Clinical Psychology, Sri Ramchandra Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed University) Porur, Chennai |
| 18. | Department of Education, Shri Khushal Das University –SKD University, Hanumangarh, Rajasthan |
| 19. | Shyam University, Department of Special Education, Dausa, Rajasthan |
| 20. | MJRP College of Education, Mahatma Jyoti Rao Phoole University SP 2 & 3 Ram Kalwar, RICCO Industrial Area, Jaipur, Rajasthan |
New education policy and structural changes in the course of clinical psychology
The introduction of the NEP 2020 meant huge changes, including the planned UGC phase-out of MPhil programs. In February 2024, an NITI Aayog Official issued a memorandum on alternative routes to supplant MPhil programs. For clinical psychology, these routes were: B.Sc. Clinical Psychology (Hons.): Four years; PG Diploma in Clinical Psychology: four years of bachelor’s + one year of diploma; M.A Clinical Psychology: four years of bachelor’s + two years of master's.
Following the successful completion of the above programs, graduates would receive related CRR (Central Rehabilitation Register) numbers from the RCI.[2]
In March 2024, the RCI issued guidelines for the new programs as per NEP 20202.
Postgraduate Diploma in Clinical Psychology: In place of the current Professional Diploma in Clinical Psychology.
MPsy (Clinical Psychology): In place of the current MPhil in Clinical Psychology.
PsyD (Clinical Psychology)
In March 2025, the RCI released the syllabus for the M.Psy (Clinical psychology) program (RCI, 2025).[13]
By April 15, 2025, RCI approved the BSc. Clinical psychology program to twenty institutes across India, approving a conditional 20 seats for intake.[12] Because of exceptional large-scale concern in RCI’s unilateral decision to bring about a fundamental shift in the training structure resulting in licensure of a clinical psychologist, RCI agreed to allow the M.Phil. (Clinical psychology) course to continue till 2027. It is important to note that this new policy was introduced without any corresponding amendment to the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017, which explicitly states that to become a clinical psychologist in India, a two-year M.Phil. Clinical psychology, following a master’s degree in psychology or earning a recognized clinical psychology degree from an institution established by the Rehabilitation Council of India under Section 3 of the RCI Act, 1992, is a mandatory requirement.[10]
There are some basic flaws in the new framework for the training of clinical psychologists that could impact the foundation of the course. The success of medical practice relies on high standards of training. Clinical psychologist training for the Indian context was derived from the scientist-practitioner model of training, with the same conceptual framework. Graduation and post-graduation in psychology have traditionally served as the foundational scaffold for postgraduate training in clinical psychology.[14,3]
The NEP 2020 mandated pathways[2] raise concerns regarding the quality of education related to clinical psychology. Earlier, a person could practice as a counseling psychologist after a two-year master’s degree in India, which needed revision for proper training in the applied context. But reducing it to a graduation level claims attention in terms of quality. It is natural that before one becomes a specialist in some area, they need to master the general part. The guidelines of BSc. Clinical psychology states that only students from the science stream would be eligible for admission into this course. It suggests that the student would not have any previous exposure to the subject. The syllabus of BSc clinical psychology has been designed in a way that the theory and practical aspects are distributed semester-wise. The full course is packed with too much detail in the hope of equipping the students with theories and practical knowledge. Earlier foundation years were devoted to nurturing the knowledge base, and the philosophy behind it was simple but logical: if one aspires to turn theory into applied skills, they need to master theory first in an in-depth manner. The more you understand, the better you diagnose and intervene. In the present curriculum, there seems to be a rush to bottle everything down, which is definitely going to compromise the quality. Earlier, after graduation, which mainly focused on general aspects, led to the master’s level course in psychology, which usually had 16 papers corresponding to different branches of psychology. This not only sharpened the general understanding of psychology but also ushered students to various branches of psychology, which further helped them to choose what they want to specialize in.
In the United States, a Bachelor’s Degree, a 4-year undergraduate degree in psychology or a related field, is required to apply to the course of a doctorate. Doctorate degrees are generally either PhD or PsyD programs in clinical psychology, which generally require 5 to 7 years of graduate study. This encompasses coursework, research, and practical training. Supervised Clinical Experience is another requirement. Students must complete a 1-year full-time internship (approximately 2,000 hours) during their doctoral program. Additionally, many states require a postdoctoral supervised experience, often amounting to another 1 to 2 years. Licensure is subject to the fulfillment of educational and supervised experience requirements, and candidates must pass the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP) and meet any additional state-specific licensure criteria.[15,16]
In the United Kingdom, the path to becoming a clinical psychologist typically takes 6 to 8 years. A 3-year Bachelor's degree in psychology is the first requirement, which should be accredited by the British Psychological Society (BPS), granting Graduate Basis for Chartered Membership (GBC). Postgraduate work experience in a clinical or research setting is often required before applying to doctoral programs. Doctorate in Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) is a 3-year full-time program that combines academic coursework, clinical placements, and research. Trainees are typically employed by the National Health Service (NHS) during this period. Successful registration depends on the completion of the DClinPsy as well as further registration with the Health and Care Professions Council to practice in the field as clinical psychologists.[17-19]
In order to become a registered psychologist in Australia, one must complete a designated series of recognized programs - a process of 5-7 years, depending on the courses selected and the pathway to registration. A Level 1 APAC-accredited course, which contains core competencies equivalent to a Bachelor of Psychology degree, is the first step on the journey. These courses may lead to stand-alone credentials or be completed in conjunction with other courses of study or higher-level degrees (e.g., graduate diploma). For students who completed their undergraduate training in a program that was not APAC-accredited, they may have to move on to a 12- to 18-month bridging course prior to entering a Level 2 course.
The next step is to complete a Level 2 APAC-accredited program, which is typically comparable to a Bachelor of Honours degree. Level 2 programs are typically a full-time program lasting a year, but they may also be offered as part of a four-year psychological sequence with your Bachelor of Psychology degree. Some institutions offer packaged Level 1 and 2 (four-year sequence) or Level 2 and 3 courses. After the fourth year, candidates have two main options to choose from in Roadmaps in Australia's registration pathway. The 5 + 1 pathway has one year of supervised internship and one additional fifth-year Level 3 APAC-accredited program. Provisional registration and passing the National Psychology Exam would be required to take this path.
Another option is the postgraduate professional psychology pathway, which involves a PsyBA registrar program after completing a Master's, Master's/PhD, or Doctorate in one of the nine approved areas of practice, which is fifth- and sixth-year APAC-accredited. Stand-alone level 4 programs provide options for psychologists with general registration to obtain endorsement in a new area of practice. Individuals seeking a second Area of Practice Endorsement (AoPE) also have access to Post-Masters bridging.[20,21]
Restoring balance: Tackling quality concerns in the evolving education structure
While India's efforts to address the growing mental health crisis through workforce expansion are admirable, restricting licensure eligibility to only a master's degree would also compromise the level and quality of the occupation, especially if it weakens the rigor of clinical psychology training. While the process may vary widely from country to country, holding a doctorate degree, either a PhD. or PsyD, is typically regarded as the 'gold standard' of licensure for clinical psychologists because it demonstrates rigorous academic study, extensive supervised clinical training, and research proficiency. Therefore, while maintaining the clinical standards of scientific and ethical training and while it not a requirement, limiting bachelor's (or shorter) degrees is equal to requiring that upon a master's that the psychologist has completed a program with a PhD. or PsyD., which is consistent with internationally accepted practices, and strengthens the credibility of the country's mental health work and also mobility internationally.
CONCLUSION
Although the NEP 2020 framework endorses reform for clinical psychology training in India to be holistic, reflective, and integrated, the framework leaves some serious questions regarding the extent of professional education. Clinical Psychology training has always been based on the principle of the scientist-practitioner paradigm, wherein theoretical background and practice are reciprocal to one another. This pyramid approach, with theoretical foundations as the broadest foundation and practical training as the application of that foundation, helps prevent clinical by watered-down theories or too simplistic , missing the necessary and basic principles of psychology. While countries like the US, UK, and Australia are moving towards educating with progressive training structures of developing a broad and deep understanding of psychology and then specialization, India's proposed focus on specialization from undergraduate-level could limit competency for those who desire to work in clinical psychology.
A brief and rushed curriculum that tries to cover theoretical and practical domain-type content in an overly short period can limit the students' ability to get all the psychological acumen they would ideally need. Maintaining quality, depth, and sequentiality for the training is essential if we are to preserve the profession and meet the mental health needs of the public effectively.
Authors’ contributions:
RK: Concepts, design, definition of intellectual content, literature search, data acquisition, data analysis, manuscript preparation, manuscript editing and review; PDU: Manuscript editing and review, Data acquisition; P: Manuscript editing and review, Data acquisition.
Ethical approval:
Institutional Review Board approval is not required.
Declaration of patient consent:
Patient's consent not required as there are no patients in this study.
Conflicts of interest:
There are no conflicts of interest.
Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation:
The authors confirm that there was no use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.
Financial support and sponsorship: Nil
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